Examining family influences and personal characteristics
Family influences
Jobs people tend to like are similar to those of their
parents
Parents and children tend to attain similar levels of
education, which is best predictor of occupational status
Parenting styles shape work-related values
Parents' gender-role expectations also influence
children's aspirations
Personal characteristics
Intelligence related to the academic success needed to
enter many fields
Aptitudes, abilities important for specific jobs (e.g.,
creativity, mechanical ability)
Important to choose career that is compatible with your
personality
Should try to evaluate your dominant traits, needs,
values
Researching job characteristics
Sources of career information
Good reference for occupational literature is
Occupational Outlook Handbook
Can often get detailed information from government
agencies, trade unions, etc.
Should talk to people who work in area you're interested
in
Essential information about occupations
The nature of the work
Working conditions
Job entry requirements
Potential earnings
Potential status
Opportunities for advancement
Intrinsic job satisfaction
Future outlook
Experts agree that future belongs to those who are better
educated
But many college graduates are underemployed
(underemployment: settling for a job that does not fully
utilize one's skills, abilities, and training)
Higher-paying jobs go to college graduates with
college-level reading, quantitative skills
Using psychological tests for career decisions
Occupational interest inventories measure your
interests as they relate to various jobs or careers
Focus on likelihood of job satisfaction rather than job
success
Can be helpful in working through career decisions
Several cautions worth noting
You may score high on some occupations you know you
would hate
Don't let the test make career decisions for you
Some gender bias on most inventories
Taking important considerations into account
You have the potential for success in a variety of
occupations
Be cautious about choosing a career solely on the basis of
salary
There are limits on your career options
Some career decisions are not easily undone
Career choice is a developmental process that extends
throughout life
Models of career choice and development
John Holland's trait measurement and matching model
Assumes that career choice is related to personality
traits
Includes six personal orientations, with relevant
work environments; thus, often called the hexagonal model
Realistic people prefer physical, mechanical jobs
(e.g., farming, engineering)
Investigative people like working with ideas
rather than things (e.g., researchers, librarians)
Artistic people like jobs where they can express
their creativity (e.g., art, music)
Social people prefer jobs that involve
interaction with others (e.g., teaching, nursing)
Enterprising people prefer jobs involving
persuasion of others (e.g., supervisory positions)
Conventional people prefer jobs that are
structured, predictable (e.g., jobs in business)
Holland developed several tests to measure the personal
orientations (e.g., the Self-Directed Search)
There is research support for Holland's theory
Assumption of model is that occupational interests remain
stable during adulthood
Research is mixed on this point
Stage theories address issue of changing interests
Donald Super's developmental model
Most influential developmental model
Views occupational development as a process that begins in
childhood, ends with retirement
Super suggests five major stages of occupational life
cycle
Growth stage (childhood)
Exploration stage constitutes a "tasting" of projected
occupation
Establishment stage generally involves commitment to
occupation
Maintenance stage involves concerns about
retaining achieved status
Decline involves deceleration of work activity as
individual nears retirement
Research on Super's model
Self-esteem and career maturity are positively
correlated
But in adolescents, identity status was stronger
predictor of career maturity than self-esteem
Women's career development
Until recently, theories and research on career
development have focused on men's careers
Experts suggest that men and women have different patterns
of career development
Woman may subordinate career to husband's
Child-rearing may interrupt the woman's career
Labor force discontinuity (i.e., dropping out of
work force) may create problems for women
A factor in gender gap in salaries, employment status
Upon return to work force, may have to take entry-level
position
The Changing world of work
Workplace trends
Work: an activity that produces something of
value for others
Six important work-related trends
Most jobs will be in the service sector (e.g., health
care, education, social work)
Technology is changing the nature of work
Computers enhance communication, make it possible for
people to work at home
On negative side, computers have reduced need for
workers
Temporary employment is increasing
Companies can cut expenditures on payroll, health
insurance, etc.
Majority of temporary workers struggle to survive
New work attitudes are required
Less job security means workers must view themselves
as "free agents"
Keys to job success include self-direction,
self-management, knowledge, etc.
Boundaries between work and home are breaking down
Computer technology is one force here
Largely a response to increases in number of
dual-earner households, in which both partners are
employed
Lifelong learning is a necessity
Education and earnings
Ability to read, write, do mathematical computations is
essential
New jobs will require higher education and skill levels
Computer literacy is important
In general, the more education, the higher the income
The changing workforce
Labor force: consists of all those who are
employed as well as those who are currently unemployed but are looking for
work
Demographic changes
Larger proportion of women in the workforce
Workforce also becoming more ethnically diverse
Hispanic, Asian workers showing greatest increase
Many of these workers have not had benefit of adequate
education
Today's workplace for women and minorities
Both groups continue to face subtle obstacles to success
Main obstacle is job segregation (job-typing by
gender, race)
Frequently passed over for promotion; this effect is
referred to as the glass ceiling, an invisible barrier that
prevents most women and ethnic minorities from advancing to the
highest levels of occupations.
Woman, minority person can become a token: a
symbol of all the members of that group. Tokens, because of the
feeling that they are accountable for the actions of their whole group,
may experience performance pressure
Both groups have fewer opportunities to observe, emulate
relevant role models
Sexual harassment at work more likely to be a problem
for women than men
The challenges of change
Cultural differences exist in managing time, people
Some individuals feel that they are personally paying the
price of prejudice in workplace
Perception can cause resentment
Recognizing the problem, some companies offer diversity
training programs
Negative feelings about affirmative action may lead to
negative attributions toward women, ethnic minorities
Coping with occupational hazards
Job stress
Sources of stress on the job
Common stressors include prolonged physical labor,
tedious work, long hours, deadlines
Women may experience sex discrimination, sexual
harassment
African Americans, ethnic minorities must cope with
racism, discrimination
Workers from lower socioeconomic levels typically work
in more dangerous jobs
Keita and Hurrell proposed four factors that play
critical role in the development of stress reactions
Most workers are employed in service industries
The economy is unpredictable
Rapid changes in computer technology tax workers'
abilities to keep up
The workplace is becoming more diverse
Karasek contends that two key factors in occupational
stress are the psychological demands and the amount of decision control.
The greatest stress is experienced in jobs that feature high
psychological demands and low decision control.
Effects of job stress
Include increase in industrial accidents and
absenteeism, poor job performance, high turnover, etc.
Prolonged stress can lead to burnout
Possible effects include physical (e.g., heart disease,
high blood pressure) and psychological (e.g., decreased self-esteem,
frequent anxiety) problems
Dealing with job stress
Three avenues of attack for dealing with job stress
Interventions at individual level
Most widely used strategy
Programs usually focus on relaxation training, time
management, etc.
Workplace wellness programs also popular
Interventions at organizational level
Key is to give adequate decision control to people
in jobs that have high psychological demands
Decentralizing management, giving workers greater
participation in decision making may help
Intervention at individual-organizational
interface
Biggest challenge in future will probably be to
accommodate changing nature of workforce
More common options include flextime, flexible leave
time, etc.
Workers from lower socioeconomic groups typically
experience more job stress, receive less attention through stress
management programs
Sexual harassment (occurs when employees are
subjected to unwelcome sexually oriented behavior)
According to the law, there are two types of sexual
harassment
Submission to sex a condition of hiring, advancement,
etc. (i.e., quid pro quo)
Unwelcome sexual behavior creates hostile working
environment
Sexual harassment can take variety of forms (e.g.,
unsolicited and unwelcome flirting, sexual advances, unappreciated dirty
jokes)
According to experts, sexual harassment is an abuse of
power by a person in authority
Prevalence and consequences
More widespread than people realize
Consequences include stress-related physical symptoms
(e.g., inability to sleep, weight loss)
Problematic emotional reactions include lower
self-esteem, depression, etc.
Victims have reported difficulties in their personal
relationships
Stopping sexual harassment
Researchers have developed two-factor model to predict
occurrence
Two factors are: individual's proclivity for sexual
harassment, and organizational norms regarding acceptability of sexual
harassment
Harassment most likely to occur when individual
proclivity is high, organizational norms are accepting
Organizations are taking steps to educate, protect
workers
Unemployment
Causes of unemployment
Shift from manufacturing to service economy
Globalization of marketplace
Major consequence of economic changes is displaced
workers (individuals who are unemployed because their jobs have
disappeared)
Effects of unemployment
Can cause economic distress, health problems,
psychological difficulties (e.g., loss of self-esteem, depression)
Those laid off in middle age seem to find the experience
most difficult
Typically feel highly involved in their work
Usually remain out of work longer than younger workers
Stress of job loss may lead to violence
Coping with unemployment
Support from friends, family is essential
Some companies offer programs for laid-off workers
Balancing work and other spheres of life
Workaholism
Psychologists divided on whether workaholism is a problem
May be two different types of workaholics
Enthusiastic workaholic works for joy of it
Non-enthusiastic workaholic is "addicted" to work
Work and family roles
Dual-earner couples must juggle two jobs, plus unpaid job
at home
Most of the burdens are borne by wives
Sometimes multiple roles cause spillover and
work-family conflict, the feeling of being pulled in multiple
directions by competing demands from the job and the family.
Leisure and recreation
Types of leisure activities include hobbies, reading,
surfing Internet, travel, sports, volunteer activities
Benefits of leisure activities
Research generally supports notion that balance of work,
relationships, and leisure activities leads to more rewarding, healthy
life
Among adults aged 55 and older, participation in variety
of leisure activities is positively correlated with psychological
well-being, and negatively related to depression
Using Internet as leisure activity
Provides entertainment, facilitates communication
Some negative consequences associated with heavy use
(e.g., decline in communication with family, depression)
Application: Getting ahead in the job game
Putting together a resume
Must achieve goals without being flashy, gimmicky
Basic guidelines
Use white, ivory, or beige paper
Eliminate typographical errors
Use best printing service available
Keep it short
Avoid use of complete sentences, word "I"
Avoid giving superfluous, personal information
Effective resume will contain: heading, objective,
education, experience
Finding companies you want to work for
Check classified section in newspaper for relevant
listings
Good source for business, professional jobs is National
Business Employment Weekly
Consult trade, professional newsletters, Internet
Other options
Go to employment agency
Consult executive recruiter ("headhunter")
Openings that are not accessible through normal channels
Can initiate contact yourself
Convince organizational authority of your capability to
solve specific problem
Landing an interview
Do some research on organization
In some cases, might want to introduce yourself (by phone
or in person) to person in charge of hiring and request an interview
Polishing your interview technique
Interviewers' ratings of applicants not necessarily based
on job-relevant characteristics (e.g., appearance, nonverbal cues may be
important)
Creating the right impression
Appear confident, enthusiastic, ambitious
Demeanor should be somewhat formal, reserved
Never give more information than interviewer requests
