Key aspects of sexual identity (the complex of
personal qualities, self-perceptions, attitudes, values, and preferences
that guide one's sexual behavior)
Sexual orientation
Heterosexuals seek emotional-sexual
relationships with members of the other gender
Homosexuals seek emotional-sexual
relationships with members of the same gender
Bisexuals seek emotional-sexual relationships
with members of both genders
Body image
How you see yourself physically
Positive body image is correlated with greater sexual
activity, higher satisfaction
Sexual values and ethics
Culturally imposed constraints on expectations regarding
sexual behavior
Nature of these messages depends on gender, race,
ethnicity, socioeconomic status
Erotic preferences
Individual differences in what people find enjoyable
Encompass attitudes about self-stimulation, oral sex,
etc.
Physiological influences
Hormones and sexual differentiation
Hormones play key role in sexual differentiation
Gonads (sex glands) produce hormonal
secretions
In males, testes produce androgens, the
principal class of male sex hormones (e.g., testosterone)
In females, ovaries produce estrogens, the
principal class of female sex hormones
Hormones regulate development of primary, secondary sex
characteristics during puberty
Hormones and sexual behavior
Androgen seems to be related to sexual activity in males
and females
Estrogen levels in women not correlated well with
sex drive
Psychological influences
Families
Home environment a significant influence on sexual
identity in early years
Open communication about sex related to better sexual
adjustment in college students
Peers
Friends are main source of information about sex for
both males and females
Peers can be source of misleading information, but also
can be highly effective force for sexually responsible behavior
Schools
Sex education programs tend to ignore psychological,
social aspects of sexuality
Research indicates sex education programs lead to
neither experimentation nor restraint
Media
Sources of information
Television becoming increasing source of information
Sexually explicit images available on Internet
Books, magazines another main source
Exposure to erotic materials seems to elevate likelihood
of sexual activity for few hours
Men who view aggressive pornography may increase
aggressive behavior toward women
Gender differences in sexual socialization
Women taught to be "person-centered"; men taught to be
"body-centered"
American males encouraged to experiment sexually, initiate
sexual activities, enjoy sex without emotional commitment; whereas females
are taught to view sex in context of romantic relationship
Sexual socialization takes longer in females
Fear of pregnancy
Girls hear negative messages about sex and men
Girls develop negative associations with their genitals
and sex
Females tend to develop sexual guilt
Differing views mean males and females are likely to be
out of sync, particularly in adolescence, early adulthood
Research suggests homosexual couples less likely to have
"incompatibility problems"
Sexual orientation
Key considerations
Experts suggest homosexuality, heterosexuality should be
viewed as end points on a continuum
Frequently cited estimate of number of people who are
predominantly homosexual is 10%
But recent surveys have reported lower estimates
Ten percent figure may be accurate for males when
homosexuals, bisexuals are lumped together, but an overestimate for
females
Origins of sexual orientation
Not much support for environmental explanations
Research on influence of prenatal hormonal factors is
inconclusive
Biological or genetic factors may play a role, according
to a number of studies
Bottom line is that it isn't yet clear what determines
sexual orientation
Attitudes toward homosexuality
Homosexuality much more visible today than in past
Homophobia: the intense fear and intolerance
of homosexuality
Characteristics include being older, having
conservative religious beliefs, endorsing traditional gender roles,
etc.
Negative attitudes sometimes translate into hate
crimes
Not all societies view homosexuality negatively
Adjustment
Homosexuality no longer classified as psychological
disorder
Research indicates no differences in adjustment
Identity development
Homosexuals seem to take longer to recognize sexual
orientation
Assumption that heterosexuality is universal
Fear of social rejection
Homosexuals report both same- and other-gender sexual
behavior during adolescence, early adulthood
Clarity about sexual orientation seems to take longer in
lesbians than in gay men
Developmental milestones
Initial awareness of same-gender erotic desires
Reconciling sexual orientation with negative societal
attitudes
Exploring gay and lesbian subcultures
Disclosing sexual orientation to others
Coming to terms with one's homosexuality in hostile
environment is difficult
Interaction in sexual relationships
Motives underlying sexual interactions
Motives quite diverse, including affection, lust, duty,
boredom, self-affirmation
Motives tend to vary by gender
For men, lust and pleasure are main motives
For women, love and emotional reasons are main motives
Communicating about sex
Disagreements about sex are common
Couples have to negotiate aspects of sexual relationship
Negotiation process may not be explicit
Many people find it difficult to talk to partner about sex
Four common barriers to sexual communication
Fear of appearing ignorant
Concern about partner's response
Conflicting attitudes about sex
Early negative sexual experience
Research indicates that open communication about sex is
associated with greater relationship satisfaction
The human sexual response
The sexual response cycle
Excitement phase
Level of arousal escalates rapidly
In males, vasocongestion (engorgement of blood
vessels) produces penile erection
In females, vasocongestion produces swelling of clitoris
and vaginal lips, vaginal lubrication; most women also experience nipple
erection and swelling of breasts
Plateau phase
Physiological arousal continues to build
Distractions can delay or stop movement to next phase
Orgasm phase
Orgasm occurs when sexual arousal reaches its
peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular contractions
that pulsate through the pelvic area
Male orgasm usually accompanied by ejaculation of
seminal fluid
Subjective experience of orgasm similar for men and
women
Resolution phase
Physiological changes subside
Men experience refractory period, a time
following male orgasm during which males are largely unresponsive to
further stimulation
Gender differences in patterns of orgasm
As a whole, sexual responses of men and women are similar
During intercourse, women somewhat less likely to reach
orgasm
Intercourse not optimal mode of stimulation for women
Intercourse may be too brief or mechanical
Incidence of orgasm among lesbians supports
socialization-based explanation of gender differences in orgasmic
consistency
Women are more likely to fake an orgasm
Sexual expression
Erogenous zones: areas of the body that are
sexually sensitive or responsive
Virtually any area of body can function as erogenous zone
Ultimate erogenous zone may be the mind
Fantasy
Sexual fantasies are common in both men and women
Women's fantasies tend to be more romantic
Men's fantasies tend to contain more explicit imagery
Most sex therapists view sexual fantasies as harmless ways
to enhance sexual excitement
Dominance, submission fantasies not uncommon, but don't
mean people really want to have such an experience
Kissing and touching
Most two-person sexual activities begin with kissing
Men often underestimate importance of kissing, touching
Self-stimulation (masturbation)
Although traditionally condemned as immoral, it's normal,
healthy
A common practice in our society
Oral and anal sex
Oral sex refers to oral stimulation of genitals
Cunnilingus: oral stimulation of the female
genitals
Fellatio: oral stimulation of penis
Oral sex is a component in most couples' sexual
relationships, although there is residue of negative attitudes
Particularly among African Americans, Hispanics,
religious conservatives, and those with less education
Prevalence has increased dramatically since late 1940s,
early 1950s
Anal intercourse: insertion of the penis into a
partner's anus and rectum
Legally termed sodomy, it's still illegal in some
states
More popular among homosexual male couples than
heterosexual couples
Intercourse
Known technically as coitus, involves insertion
of the penis into the vagina and (typically) pelvic thrusting
Partners may use variety of positions
Sexual activities homosexual couples use in absence of
coitus
Lesbians: mutual masturbation, cunnilingus,
tribadism (one partner lies on top of other, makes thrusting
movements)
Patterns of sexual behavior
Sex in the age of AIDS
American sexual attitudes, behaviors have become more
liberal over past 30 years
Trend appears to be continuing
But these changes have had serious downsides (e.g.,
increases in teenage pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, spread of
HIV infection)
Some evidence that college students' attitudes
toward casual sex are becoming more disapproving, sexual behavior seems
unaffected
Some evidence that concerns about contracting AIDS are
affecting sexual practices, but more likely to be the case for older
individuals
"Premarital sex"
Premarital sex increasingly involves relationships between
mature adults
Attitudes
Compared to generation ago, more people believe that sex
before marriage is acceptable
Males more accepting of premarital sex under casual
circumstances
Prevalence
Has increased since 1960s
Some attributable to later marriages, but incidence
among teenagers has also increased
Gender differences in reactions to first experience with
sexual intercourse
Males tend to feel glad
Females more likely to feel sadness, disappointment
Sex in committed relationships
Sex between dating couples
Decision is often difficult
Dating couples that have sex may be more likely to stay
together
Marital sex
Overall marital satisfaction is related to satisfaction
with sexual relationship
Frequency of sex tends to decrease with age
With age, sexual arousal tends to build more slowly and
orgasms tend to diminish in frequency and intensity
Sex in homosexual relationships
Homosexual couples have sex about as often as
heterosexual couples
Homosexual couples more likely to have egalitarian
sexual relationships
Tend to have non-goal-oriented view of sexual activities
Tend to rate subjective quality of sex higher
Infidelity in committed relationships
Generally, gay couples more permissive than lesbian,
married couples
Prevalence
Substantial number of people get involved
Accurate estimates are difficult to come by
Motivations
Common reasons include anger toward partner,
dissatisfaction with relationship, desire for new sexual experiences,
etc.
Men's motivations tied to sex; women's to emotions
Impact
Has not been investigated extensively
Experts speculate that about 20% of divorces caused by
infidelity
Findings regarding gay relationships are contradictory
Practical issues in sexual activity
Contraception
Barriers to effective contraception
A third to half of sexually active American teenagers
don't use contraception or use it only on occasion
Many adolescents believe they don't need to take
precautions if they're not gay, intravenous drug users, or don't have
frequent sex
Harbor the illusion that pregnancy, sexually
transmitted diseases "could never happen to me"
Girls who feel guilty about sex often fail to use
contraception
Access to contraceptive devices may be a problem
Conflicting norms about gender and sexual behavior among
college students
Alcohol a contributing factor in college students
Selecting a contraceptive method
Couples should be informed about contraceptive methods
and understand difference between the ideal failure rate and the
actual failure rate
Couples should discuss preferences for method
Two most widely used birth control methods
Oral contraceptives (i.e., pills taken daily)
Contain synthetic forms of estrogen, progesterone
Use does not appear to increase a woman's overall
risk for cancer
High doses taken within 72 hours after intercourse
can prevent pregnancy
Condom (i.e., sheath worn over penis during
intercourse)
Only widely available contraceptive device for males
Highly effective if used correctly
Oil-based creams, lotions should not be used with
rubber condoms (or diaphragms) because they may create microscopic
holes
Sexually transmitted diseases (STD): illnesses
transmitted primarily through sexual contact
Prevalence and transmission
Occur more frequently than widely realized
Most STDs are increasing in prevalence
Concerning transmission, six points worth emphasizing
Should consider any activity that exposes you
to blood, semen, saliva, etc. as high-risk unless you're in sexually
exclusive relationship with unaffected partner
The more partners you have, the greater the risk
Sexual labels people attach to themselves (e.g.,
heterosexual, homosexual) may not be accurate
People can be carriers of STDs without being aware of
it
People who know they have STD may not abstain from sex
Anal intercourse a particularly risky behavior
Prevention
Abstinence is best way to minimize risk, but may not be
realistic
Talk with your partner about safer sexual practices
Suggestions for safer sex
Avoid anal intercourse
Use rubber, polyurethane condom if involved in
nonexclusive relationship
Wash genitals before, after sexual contact
Urinate soon after intercourse
Don't have sex with someone who has had many previous
partners
Watch for sores, rashes, etc. around vulva, penis
If you have several partners in a year, you should have
regular STD checkups
Application: Enhancing sexual relationships
General suggestions
Pursue adequate sex education
Review your sexual value system
Communicate about sex
Avoid goal setting
Enjoy your sexual fantasies
Be selective about sex
Understanding sexual dysfunction
Sexual dysfunctions: impairments in sexual
functioning that cause subjective distress
Sexual problems tend to belong to couples rather than
individuals
Both physiological, psychological factors contribute
Three common sexual dysfunctions
Erectile difficulties occur when a man is
persistently unable to achieve or maintain an erection adequate for
intercourse
Organic factors may contribute to as many as 50% of
all cases
Most common psychological cause is anxiety about
sexual performance
Premature ejaculation occurs when sexual
relations are impaired because a man consistently reaches orgasm too
quickly
Psychological factors are typical cause
Some men don't exert much effort to prolong
intercourse
These men tend not to view their ejaculations as
premature
Other causes can include depression, anger at one's
partner
May occur because early experiences emphasized
desirability of rapid climax
Orgasmic difficulties occur when people
experience sexual arousal but have persistent problems in achieving
orgasm
Much more common in women
Physical causes are rare
Leading psychological cause is negative attitude
toward sex
Lack of authentic affection for partner can be factor
Coping with specific problems
Sex therapy: involves the professional treatment
of sexual dysfunctions
Erectile difficulties
Viagra is about 80% effective
But may have life-threatening drawbacks
Many therapists argue that medical approach fails to
address psychological causes
For psychologically based difficulties, key is to
decrease man's performance anxiety
One procedure for treatment of erectile difficulties and
other dysfunctions is sensate focus: an exercise in which
partners take turns pleasuring each other while giving guided verbal
feedback and in which certain kinds of stimulation are temporarily
forbidden
Premature ejaculation
May involve decreasing tempo of intercourse
Two treatments used for cases of instant ejaculation
Stop-start method
Squeeze technique
Orgasmic difficulties
In women, often a result of negative attitudes about sex
Treatment sometimes focuses on couple's general
relationship problems
Not uncommon for women to be troubled by orgasmic
difficulties only in context of intercourse